The goal of the present study was to determine whether parenthood influences the levels of depressive symptoms in men and women from the academic community. We found that the presence of children affects women’s mental health but not men’s mental health. When comparing parents and nonparents and the impact of gender, we found that mothers had significantly greater odds of a probable diagnosis of depression than women without children. For men, we found no differences between fathers and nonfathers. Similar to our findings, a recent study showed that women experience a significant increase in depression after the birth of their first child, whereas men appear to be unaffected (Shi and Shen, 2023). Additionally, Shi and Shen’s (2023) study revealed that although men and women reported similar levels of life satisfaction before becoming parents, women experienced a significant, immediate, and enduring decrease in life satisfaction. They also faced ongoing mental health challenges after the birth of their first child, with no recovery observed even after 10 years. Similar results were also found in a study by Nelson-Coffey et al. (2019) in which fathers’ experiences greatly differed from mothers’ experiences – mothers had lower levels of well-being, psychological satisfaction, and happiness when dealing with housework and caregiving. This figure was likely even higher after the COVID-19 pandemic (Alsharawy et al., 2021; Cameron et al., 2020; Passos et al., 2020). This could be a reflection of a historically unequal share of responsibilities, such as inequality in work, domestic duties, and childcare. There is evidence that mothers have more domestic responsibilities (i.e., childcare and housework) than fathers and nonparents, which influences their perspective of well-being; they are more stressed and less happy (Evenson and Simon, 2005; Musick et al., 2016). Although it is well known that women are as likely as men to suffer from depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001), only a few studies have focused on women’s mental health, especially the mental health of mothers within the academic community. This current study represents a significant contribution to the literature by confirming that the mental health of mothers, but not fathers, is greatly affected, indicating the need for specific policies to support mothers.
Importantly, our results showed that different social aspects of parenthood significantly affected the levels of depression symptoms for mothers. We found that being Black, having children with disabilities, having no support network, and being the primary caregiver were related to increased odds of having high depression symptomatology in mothers. We did not find any significant association between the age of the children and the presence of depression symptoms.
Specifically, our results showed that the mental health of Black mothers was significantly more affected than that of White mothers. Some studies have highlighted the particular vulnerability of mental health among Black mothers. For instance, Campbell-Grossman and her collaborators (2016) conducted a study with Black mothers of adolescents to investigate the relationship among depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and social support. They found that more than half of Black mothers exhibited depressive symptoms. Additionally, their study revealed that the lack of support and perceived stress experienced by these mothers was associated with an increase in depressive symptoms. Siefert et al. (2007) conducted a study with Black mothers, revealing that 34% of their sample was likely to experience depression. Importantly, these mothers with depressive symptoms reported a lack of social support and everyday discrimination, which was related to an increase in depressive symptoms. The perception of everyday discrimination had a strong association with depressive symptoms, indicating that racial discrimination played a significant role in the mental health of Black mothers.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, this situation worsened. Due to financial difficulties and mental distress, Black women reported higher levels of depressive symptoms (Hassoun Ayoub et al., 2023; Lara-Cinisomo et al., 2024; MCGoron et al., 2021; Walton et al., 2021). According to our results, Black mothers in academia are 1.49 times more likely to develop high depressive symptomatology (probable depression) than White mothers, suggesting that racial factors play a crucial role in their heightened vulnerability to mental health disorders. The reasons for this need to be better understood. Historically, Black women have been underrepresented in higher education as students, as professors, and in leadership positions (Bertocchi and Dimico, 2022; Showunmi, 2023). It is possible that this underrepresentation creates a sense of isolation and lack of belonging that adversely affects the mental health of these women. Further studies are needed to gain a deeper understanding of this issue.
Similar to Black mothers, who face notable obstacles, mothers of children with disabilities also encounter additional challenges (Boström et al., 2011; Kimura and Yamazaki, 2019; Olsson and Hwang, 2006). In fact, these mothers face more stress and a higher prevalence of mental health issues (McConkey et al., 2008; Minichil et al., 2019; Singer, 2006; Sonune et al., 2021). For instance, Waqar Azeem et al. (2013), indicated that mothers of children with intellectual disability had high levels of depression symptoms, which was associated with the severity of intellectual disabilities in their children. In a similar study, Sharma and colleagues (2021) demonstrated that among mothers with children with disabilities, 91.8% had scores indicative of anxiety, 66.3% for depression, and 64.3% for both anxiety and depression. The association between depression and the severity of a child’s intellectual disability, a diagnosis of Down’s syndrome, and the absence of family support was found to be significant. In a nationally representative study in the United States, Hoyle and colleagues (2020) showed that mothers of children with disabilities (ages 13-17 years old) had 84% higher odds of developing anxiety/depression than mothers of children without disabilities. In addition, for Hispanic mothers of adolescent children, the odds of developing anxiety or depression were more than 5 times greater when the child had a developmental disability.
Nevertheless, it is essential to emphasize that having a child with a disability can lead to positive effects on family members. According to (Beighton and Wills, 2017), the frequently mentioned positive aspects of parenting a child with intellectual disabilities include an increased sense of personal strength and confidence, altered priorities, a greater appreciation for life, delight in the child’s achievements, enhanced faith or spirituality, more meaningful relationships, and the positive influence of the child on the broader community. Therefore, it is possible that these positive perceptions coexist with anxiety and depression (Hastings et al., 2005; Vilaseca et al., 2014).
As expected, the mental health of mothers with children with disabilities deteriorated even further during the COVID-19 pandemic (Chen et al., 2020). The absence of support in managing various responsibilities, the caregiving burden, homeschooling, and the need to provide physical and psychological assistance to their children all contributed to these mothers experiencing heightened depressive symptoms (Hochman et al., 2022; Rogers et al., 2021; Urizar et al., 2022). Our results showed that mothers of children with disabilities have twice the chance of experiencing high levels of depressive symptoms compared to mothers of children without disabilities. This finding highlights the importance of considering this factor to prevent the deterioration of maternal mental health.
Mothers’ mental health can also be affected differently depending on their caregiving responsibilities. Previous studies have shown that primary caregivers have more depressive symptoms, are overloaded with care, carry out more care hours and tasks, and have lower well-being (Pinquart and Sörensen, 2006; Yue et al., 2018). Furthermore, numerous studies have shown that primary caregivers, especially mothers who care for children with disabilities, experience moderate to severe depression and exhibit elevated levels of anxiety, stress, and burden (Bekele et al., 2023; Kouther et al., 2022; Lai et al., 2023). Minichil et al. (2019) showed that the prevalence of depression among primary caregivers was 57.6%, and factors such as being female, being a mother, being a primary caregiver and having a poor support network were significantly associated with depression. Additionally, primary caregivers who had poor support were 5.5 times more likely to develop depression than those with strong support. Another study showed that perceived social support was associated with a decrease in depression symptoms in primary caregivers; likewise, primary caregivers were mostly women, and the prevalence of depression was 25% (Derajew et al., 2017). Mothers have to balance their professional demands with their domestic responsibilities, further exacerbating their mental load (Russell et al., 2020; Thorsteinsen et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2020). Consequently, the pressure to meet the demands of both families and work can be overwhelming.
Mothers without a support network may also experience more severe symptoms of depression (Giurgescu et al., 2022; Wandschneider et al., 2022). Brown et al., (2020) also showed that mothers without a support network of family members or schools and daycare centers were more likely to have depressive symptoms, suggesting that the lack of support affects mental health. In addition, Dunham et al. (1998) showed that mothers who were offered support networks during a 6-month period considerably lowered their stress symptoms and that those who accepted the help were more likely to not only feel less stressed but also offer support to other mothers. Likewise, negative support or an absence of support was linked to a decline in overall well-being, manifested as increased depressive symptoms, heightened negative affect, high levels of stress, and reduced positive affect. Additionally, the presence of support networks has been found to enhance mental health outcomes, leading to a decreased likelihood of women reporting poor mental health (Coker et al., 2002; Mulvaney and Kendrick, 2005; Smith et al., 2012). Silver et al. (2006) also showed that mothers with unsatisfactory support networks and those who considered themselves less capable of managing the situations and tasks they faced as parents of young children presented a high predisposition for depressive symptoms. The authors showed that having a support network decreased their stress levels. Additionally, mothers face significant challenges in balancing their families and work obligations. These challenges arise at both the practical and emotional levels, resulting in conflicts and tensions. Our findings demonstrate that mothers within the academic community who lack a support network are twice as likely to develop depression. This underscores the critical role this factor plays in making these mothers vulnerable to mental health challenges. Notably, this factor is amenable to change through public policies, such as the provision of childcare facilities. Practical initiatives aimed at supporting mothers can exert a substantial influence in preserving their mental well-being.
Children’s age did not have a significant impact on depressive symptoms in our study, which was an unexpected result. Given how severely the epidemic affected older children and teenagers (Spinelli et al., 2020), we expected that during the pandemic, the effect of parenting on mental health would be less age-dependent since parents were worried about their children, regardless of their age. Marchetti et al. (2020) investigated the mental health of parents with children aged between 0 and 13 years and found that most of their children had higher levels of psychological stress during the pandemic than before the pandemic. Other studies also showed that mothers with children aged 0 to 14 years before the pandemic already had high levels of psychological stress and depressive symptoms, and with the social isolation and increased household demands associated with the pandemic, these mothers experienced higher levels of psychological stress and depressive symptoms (Cameron et al., 2020; Spinelli et al., 2020).
Our study has several limitations. First, the study was conducted while the COVID-19 pandemic was ongoing. We cannot determine the extent to which our results were influenced by this because we lack prepandemic data. However, the literature suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated an already existing scenario of weakened mental health related to parenthood (Alsharawy et al., 2021; Passos et al., 2020). Therefore, it is highly likely that the vulnerability factors described here were also significant during the prepandemic period. Additionally, because this was a retrospective study with a cross-sectional design, it is not possible to make causal inferences. Moreover, recall bias might have led to inaccuracies and inconsistencies in the completion of the questionnaires. A limitation regarding our sample of parents is that we did not include parents younger than 30, and most respondents were mothers. Finally, while the influence of motherhood may differ by academic position (students versus faculty members), we did not include this variable in the analysis because of the modest sample size of some groups, which might increase the risk of bias.
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